Details on the Findings of Standard Freezing and Thawing Protocols for Cryopreservation of Biopsied Human Embryos at the Blastocyst Stage
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The combination of in vitro fertilization (IVF) and pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) for genetic studies and aneuploid screening has become common in recent years. PGD has been used for known single-gene disorders (1), repeated miscarriage (2), advanced maternal age (3), X-linked diseases (4), Translocations (5),repetitive IVF failure (6), severe male infertility (7), and routine aneuploid screening (8).
It gives the couples an option to transfer only unaffected embryos. Therefore, the pregnancy is initiated with the knowledge that the fetus is free from diseases. Biopsy protocols include blastomere, polar body and trophoblast biopsy. The most commonly employed is cleavage stage biopsy performed at 6-10 cell stage. Usually one or two blastomeres are removed (9-10). The opening created in the zona pellucida during the biopsy may reduce the subsequent embryos susceptible to cryopreservation damage. Finding a safe cryopreservation method for biopsied human embryos is paramount to allow for future use of remaining normal embryos.
Further more, certain single-gene disorder diagnosis is protracted, requesting freezing of all biopsied embryos (11). So far, there is insufficient data on the optimal freezing method for biopsied human embryos .There are several reports of modified cryopreservation methods for biopsied human embryos (12-16). In this study, we used standard freezing and thawing procedures for blastocyst to freeze and thaw biopsied human embryos at blastocyst stage by comparing embryo survival and further development, as well as implantation and pregnancy rates between biopsied and non-biopsied embryos in order to test weather the standard protocol of blastocyst cryopreservation is suitable for biopsied blastocyst.
To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report to use standard blastocyst freezing and thawing protocols for biopsied embryo cryopreservation.
Human malarial parasite came from gorillas
Human malarial parasite came from gorillas
The parasite that causes the deadliest form of malaria in humans was not transmitted by chimpanzees.
A wide-ranging study of malaria parasites in apes suggests that the species responsible for most cases of the disease in humans, Plasmodium falciparum, originated in gorillas — not, as was previously thought, in chimpanzees. Moreover, the researchers conclude, the parasite may have made the jump between species just once.
Of the five species of mosquito-borne parasite that cause malaria in humans, P. falciparumis by far the most common, causing hundreds of millions of cases of malaria and more than one million deaths per year. Understanding the parasite's origins will, researchers hope, and help to inform medical strategies for tackling the disease.
Until now, scientists believed P. falciparum's closest relative to be P. reichenowi, a parasite of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), but studies were limited to a few apes, many of them from captive populations. Whether wild populations were acting as natural reservoirs for Plasmodiumspecies was not known.
Extended family
The latest study, led by Beatrice Hahn of the University of Alabama at Birmingham and published today in Nature(September,2010), took in wild populations of chimpanzees, bonobos and gorillas from across sub-Saharan Africa to analyze the genes of ape parasites related to P. falciparum.
The team used faecal samples from specimen banks built up to investigate the evolution of HIV, including 1,827 from chimpanzees, 803 from gorillas and 107 from bonobos. They then sequenced the PlasmodiumDNA found in the samples, looking particularly at DNA from mitochondria, the cells' energy factories.
They found high levels of malarial infection among chimpanzees and western gorillas (Gorilla gorilla), populations of which act as natural reservoirs for Plasmodiumspecies, but no infections among eastern gorillas (Gorilla beringei) or bonobos (Pan paniscus).
The team used the mitochondrial DNA sequences to produce phylogenetic trees, which indicate relationships between organisms on the basis of DNA.
The researchers' analyses reveal that the apes were infected with at least nine species of Plasmodium, three of which are new to science. With one exception, the parasitic species were all very closely related, belonging to the subgenus Laverania, and were highly host-specific.
The P. falciparumsamples from humans included in the study were most closely related to parasites that infected western gorillas in Cameroon, the Central African Republic and the Republic of the Congo, and is likely to have originated from a single transmission event.
Daniel Jeffares, an evolutionary biologist at University College London, describes the findings as "striking". He adds, "in terms of our understanding of parasites, this paper is a game-changer."
Single origin?
"It's a fascinating evolutionary question to ask where these human pathogens came from," says evolutionary biologist Paul Sharp of the University of Edinburgh, UK, who worked on the study. "We're now wondering whether a cross-species jump like this could happen again in the future."
However, Jeffares says that confirmation of a one-off event would require the analysis of more P. falciparumsamples than were included in the study.
Sharp says that the group's samples are representative of the species as a whole because genetic diversity is low in P. falciparumcompared with the diversity of Plasmodiumspecies in apes. But Jeffares argues that low diversity in P. falciparumis a myth based on out-of-date references. "More recent papers show there is quite a lot of diversity in different areas. Maybe if you looked harder you would find multiple origins," he says.
If P. falciparumdid make the jump to humans in a single event, this, and the other relationships revealed by the research, suggests that interspecies transmission is rare, which could bode well for attempts to eradicate malaria. If P. falciparumwas successfully wiped out, Jeffares says, it could be hundreds of thousands of years before another parasite was transmitted from apes. However, Sharp wonders whether that would "simply open up a niche for another Plasmodiumparasite to jump into humans".
The study could help scientists to pinpoint the genetic changes that allowed the parasite to infect humans. Jeffares says that it would be relatively simple and inexpensive to sample entire genomes of P. falciparumand its close relatives. "You could look throughout the whole genome and find out where rapid evolution has been taking place," he says.
Genetically modified food
Method
Genetic modification involves the insertion or deletion of genes. In the process of Cisgenesis genes are artificially transferred between organisms that could be conventionally bred. In the process of Transgenesis genes from a different species are inserted, which is a form of horizontal gene transfer. In nature this can occur when exogenous DNA penetrates the cell membrane for any reason. To do this artificially may require attaching the genes to a virus or just physically inserting the extra DNA into the nucleus of the intended host with a very small syringe, or with very small particles fired from a gene gun. However, other methods exploit natural forms of gene transfer, such as the ability of Agrobacterium to transfer genetic material to plants, and the ability of lentiviruses to transfer genes to animal cells.
Development
The first commercially grown genetically modified whole food crop was a tomato (called FlavrSavr), which was modified to ripen without softening, by a Californian company Calgene. Calgene took the initiative to obtain FDA approval for its release in 1994 without any special labeling, although legally no such approval was required. It was welcomed by consumers who purchased the fruit at a substantial premium over the price of regular tomatoes. However, production problems and competition from a conventionally bred, longer shelf-life variety prevented the product from becoming profitable. A variant of the Flavr Savr was used by Zeneca to produce tomato paste which was sold in Europe during the summer of 1996. The labeling and pricing were designed as a marketing experiment, which proved, at the time, that European consumers would accept genetically engineered foods.
Currently, there are a number of food species in which a genetically modified version exists.
Food
Properties of the genetically modified variety
Modification
Percent Modified in US
Percent Modified in world
Soybeans
Resistant to glyphosate or glufosinate herbicides
Herbicide resistant gene taken from bacteria inserted into soybean
89%
TBA
Corn, field
Resistant to glyphosate or glufosinate herbicides, Insect resistance - using Bt proteins some previously used as pesticides in organic crop production.
Vitamin-enriched corn derived from South African white corn variety M37W has bright orange kernels, with 169x increase in beta carotene, 6x the vitamin C and 2x folate. || New genes added/transferred into plant genome. || 60% || TBA
Cotton (cottonseed oil)
Pest-resistant cotton
Bt crystal protein gene added/transferred into plant genome
83%
62%
Hawaiian papaya
Variety is resistant to the papaya ringspot virus.
New gene added/transferred into plant genome
+50%
TBA
Tomatoes
Variety in which the production of the enzyme polygalacturonase (PG) is suppressed, retarding fruit softening after harvesting.
A reverse copy (an antisense gene) of the gene responsible for the production of PG enzyme added into plant genome
Taken off the market due to commercial failure.
None
Potatoes
Amflora variety produces waxy potato starch composed almost exclusively of the amylopectin component of starch.
The gene for granule bound starch synthase (GBSS) (the key enzyme for the synthesis of amylose) was switched off by inserting antisense copy of the GBSS gene.
Amflora will be produced solely under contract farming conditions and not made available on the general market.
TBA
Rapeseed (Canola)
Resistance to herbicides (glyphosate or glufosinate), high laurate canola
New genes added/transferred into plant genome
75%
TBA
Sugar cane
Resistance to certain pesticides, high-sucrose cane.
New genes added/transferred into plant genome
TBA
TBA
Sugar beet
Resistance to glyphosate, glufosinate herbicides
New genes added/transferred into plant genome
TBA
TBA
Sweet corn
Produces its own bioinsecticide (Bt toxin)
Gene from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis added to the plant.
TBA
TBA
Rice
Genetically modified to contain high amounts of Vitamin A (beta-carotene)
"Golden rice" Three new genes implanted: two from daffodils and the third from a bacterium
TBA
TBA
In addition, various genetically engineered micro-organisms are routinely used as sources of enzymes for the manufacture of a wide variety of processed foods. These include alpha-amylase from bacteria, which converts starch to simple sugars, chymosin from bacteria or fungi that clots milk protein for cheese making, and pectinesterase from fungi which improves fruit juice clarity.
Growing Genetically Modified crops
Between 1997 and 2005, the total surface area of land cultivated with GMOs had increased by a factor of 50, from 17,000 km2 (4.2 million acres) to 900,000 km2 (222 million acres).
Although most GM crops are grown in North America, in recent years there has been rapid growth in the area sown in developing countries. For instance in 2005 the largest increase in crop area planted to GM crops (soybeans) was in Brazil (94,000 km2 in 2005 versus 50,000 km2 in 2004.) There has also been rapid and continuing expansion of GM cotton varieties in India since 2002. (Cotton is a major source of vegetable cooking oil and animal feed.) It is predicted that in 2008/9 32,000 km2 of GM cotton will be harvested in India (up more than 100 percent from the previous season).
Indian national average cotton yields of GM cotton were seven times lower in 2002, because the parental cotton plant used in the genetic engineered variant was not well suited to the climate of India and failed. The publicity given to transgenic trait Bt insect resistance has encouraged the adoption of better performing hybrid cotton varieties, and the Bt trait has substantially reduced losses to insect predation. Though controversial and often disputed, economic and environmental benefits of GM cotton in India to the individual farmer have been documented.
In 2003, countries that grew 99% of the global transgenic crops were the United States (63%), Argentina (21%), Canada (6%), Brazil (4%), China (4%), and South Africa (1%). The Grocery Manufacturers of America estimate that 75% of all processed foods in the U.S. contain a GM ingredient . In particular, Bt corn, which produces the pesticide within the plant itself, is widely grown, as are soybeans genetically designed to tolerate glyphosate herbicides. These constitute "input-traits" are aimed to financially benefit the producers, have indirect environmental benefits and marginal cost benefits to consumers.
In the US, by 2006 89% of the planted area of soybeans, 83% of cotton, and 61% corn were genetically modified varieties. Genetically modified soybeans carried herbicide-tolerant traits only, but maize and cotton carried both herbicide tolerance and insect protection traits (the latter largely the Bacillus thuringiensis Bt insecticidal protein). In the period 2002 to 2006, there were significant increases in the area planted to Bt protected cotton and maize, and herbicide tolerant maize also increased in sown area.
Crop yields
Some scientific studies have claimed that genetically modified varieties of plants do not produce higher crop yields than normal plants. However, other scientific studies dispute these claims.[citation needed]
One study by Charles Benbrook, Chief Scientist of the Organic Center, found that genetically engineered Roundup Ready soybeans do not increase yields (Bendrook, 1999). The report reviewed over 8,200 university trials in 1998 and found that Roundup Ready soybeans yielded 7-10% less than similar natural varieties. In addition, the same study found that farmers used 5-10 times more herbicide (Roundup) on Roundup Ready soybeans than on conventional ones.
Coexistence and traceability
The United States and Canada do not require labeling of genetically modified foods. However in certain other regions, such as the European Union, Japan, Malaysia and Australia, governments have required labeling so consumers can exercise choice between foods that have genetically modified, conventional or organic origins. This requires a labeling system as well as the reliable separation of GM and non-GM organisms at production level and throughout the whole processing chain. Research suggests that this may prove impossible.[citation needed]
For traceability, the OECD has introduced a "unique identifier" which is given to any GMO when it is approved. This unique identifier must be forwarded at every stage of processing.[citation needed] Many countries have established labeling regulations and guidelines on coexistence and traceability. Research projects such as Co-Extra, SIGMEA and Transcontainer are aimed at investigating improved methods for ensuring coexistence and providing stakeholders the tools required for the implementation of coexistence and traceability.[citation needed]
Detection
Testing on GMOs in food and feed is routinely done using molecular techniques like DNA microarrays or qPCR. These tests can be based on screening genetic elements (like p35S, tNos, pat, or bar) or event-specific markers for the official GMOs (like Mon810, Bt11, or GT73). The array-based method combines multiplex PCR and array technology to screen samples for different potential GMOs , combining different approaches (screening elements, plant-specific markers, and event-specific markers).
The qPCR is used to detect specific GMO events by usage of specific primers for screening elements or event-specific markers. Controls are necessary to avoid false positive or false negative results. For example, a test for CaMV is used to
Genetically modified food
Method
Genetic modification involves the insertion or deletion of genes. In the process of Cisgenesis genes are artificially transferred between organisms that could be conventionally bred. In the process of Transgenesis genes from a different species are inserted, which is a form of horizontal gene transfer. In nature this can occur when exogenous DNA penetrates the cell membrane for any reason. To do this artificially may require attaching the genes to a virus or just physically inserting the extra DNA into the nucleus of the intended host with a very small syringe, or with very small particles fired from a gene gun. However, other methods exploit natural forms of gene transfer, such as the ability of Agrobacterium to transfer genetic material to plants, and the ability of lentiviruses to transfer genes to animal cells.
Development
The first commercially grown genetically modified whole food crop was a tomato (called FlavrSavr), which was modified to ripen without softening, by a Californian company Calgene. Calgene took the initiative to obtain FDA approval for its release in 1994 without any special labeling, although legally no such approval was required. It was welcomed by consumers who purchased the fruit at a substantial premium over the price of regular tomatoes. However, production problems and competition from a conventionally bred, longer shelf-life variety prevented the product from becoming profitable. A variant of the Flavr Savr was used by Zeneca to produce tomato paste which was sold in Europe during the summer of 1996. The labeling and pricing were designed as a marketing experiment, which proved, at the time, that European consumers would accept genetically engineered foods.
Currently, there are a number of food species in which a genetically modified version exists.
Food
Properties of the genetically modified variety
Modification
Percent Modified in US
Percent Modified in world
Soybeans
Resistant to glyphosate or glufosinate herbicides
Herbicide resistant gene taken from bacteria inserted into soybean
89%
TBA
Corn, field
Resistant to glyphosate or glufosinate herbicides, Insect resistance - using Bt proteins some previously used as pesticides in organic crop production.
Vitamin-enriched corn derived from South African white corn variety M37W has bright orange kernels, with 169x increase in beta carotene, 6x the vitamin C and 2x folate. || New genes added/transferred into plant genome. || 60% || TBA
Cotton (cottonseed oil)
Pest-resistant cotton
Bt crystal protein gene added/transferred into plant genome
83%
62%
Hawaiian papaya
Variety is resistant to the papaya ringspot virus.
New gene added/transferred into plant genome
+50%
TBA
Tomatoes
Variety in which the production of the enzyme polygalacturonase (PG) is suppressed, retarding fruit softening after harvesting.
A reverse copy (an antisense gene) of the gene responsible for the production of PG enzyme added into plant genome
Taken off the market due to commercial failure.
None
Potatoes
Amflora variety produces waxy potato starch composed almost exclusively of the amylopectin component of starch.
The gene for granule bound starch synthase (GBSS) (the key enzyme for the synthesis of amylose) was switched off by inserting antisense copy of the GBSS gene.
Amflora will be produced solely under contract farming conditions and not made available on the general market.
TBA
Rapeseed (Canola)
Resistance to herbicides (glyphosate or glufosinate), high laurate canola
New genes added/transferred into plant genome
75%
TBA
Sugar cane
Resistance to certain pesticides, high-sucrose cane.
New genes added/transferred into plant genome
TBA
TBA
Sugar beet
Resistance to glyphosate, glufosinate herbicides
New genes added/transferred into plant genome
TBA
TBA
Sweet corn
Produces its own bioinsecticide (Bt toxin)
Gene from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis added to the plant.
TBA
TBA
Rice
Genetically modified to contain high amounts of Vitamin A (beta-carotene)
"Golden rice" Three new genes implanted: two from daffodils and the third from a bacterium
TBA
TBA
In addition, various genetically engineered micro-organisms are routinely used as sources of enzymes for the manufacture of a wide variety of processed foods. These include alpha-amylase from bacteria, which converts starch to simple sugars, chymosin from bacteria or fungi that clots milk protein for cheese making, and pectinesterase from fungi which improves fruit juice clarity.
Growing Genetically Modified crops
Between 1997 and 2005, the total surface area of land cultivated with GMOs had increased by a factor of 50, from 17,000 km2 (4.2 million acres) to 900,000 km2 (222 million acres).
Although most GM crops are grown in North America, in recent years there has been rapid growth in the area sown in developing countries. For instance in 2005 the largest increase in crop area planted to GM crops (soybeans) was in Brazil (94,000 km2 in 2005 versus 50,000 km2 in 2004.) There has also been rapid and continuing expansion of GM cotton varieties in India since 2002. (Cotton is a major source of vegetable cooking oil and animal feed.) It is predicted that in 2008/9 32,000 km2 of GM cotton will be harvested in India (up more than 100 percent from the previous season).
Indian national average cotton yields of GM cotton were seven times lower in 2002, because the parental cotton plant used in the genetic engineered variant was not well suited to the climate of India and failed. The publicity given to transgenic trait Bt insect resistance has encouraged the adoption of better performing hybrid cotton varieties, and the Bt trait has substantially reduced losses to insect predation. Though controversial and often disputed, economic and environmental benefits of GM cotton in India to the individual farmer have been documented.
In 2003, countries that grew 99% of the global transgenic crops were the United States (63%), Argentina (21%), Canada (6%), Brazil (4%), China (4%), and South Africa (1%). The Grocery Manufacturers of America estimate that 75% of all processed foods in the U.S. contain a GM ingredient . In particular, Bt corn, which produces the pesticide within the plant itself, is widely grown, as are soybeans genetically designed to tolerate glyphosate herbicides. These constitute "input-traits" are aimed to financially benefit the producers, have indirect environmental benefits and marginal cost benefits to consumers.
In the US, by 2006 89% of the planted area of soybeans, 83% of cotton, and 61% corn were genetically modified varieties. Genetically modified soybeans carried herbicide-tolerant traits only, but maize and cotton carried both herbicide tolerance and insect protection traits (the latter largely the Bacillus thuringiensis Bt insecticidal protein). In the period 2002 to 2006, there were significant increases in the area planted to Bt protected cotton and maize, and herbicide tolerant maize also increased in sown area.
Crop yields
Some scientific studies have claimed that genetically modified varieties of plants do not produce higher crop yields than normal plants. However, other scientific studies dispute these claims.[citation needed]
One study by Charles Benbrook, Chief Scientist of the Organic Center, found that genetically engineered Roundup Ready soybeans do not increase yields (Bendrook, 1999). The report reviewed over 8,200 university trials in 1998 and found that Roundup Ready soybeans yielded 7-10% less than similar natural varieties. In addition, the same study found that farmers used 5-10 times more herbicide (Roundup) on Roundup Ready soybeans than on conventional ones.
Coexistence and traceability
The United States and Canada do not require labeling of genetically modified foods. However in certain other regions, such as the European Union, Japan, Malaysia and Australia, governments have required labeling so consumers can exercise choice between foods that have genetically modified, conventional or organic origins. This requires a labeling system as well as the reliable separation of GM and non-GM organisms at production level and throughout the whole processing chain. Research suggests that this may prove impossible.[citation needed]
For traceability, the OECD has introduced a "unique identifier" which is given to any GMO when it is approved. This unique identifier must be forwarded at every stage of processing.[citation needed] Many countries have established labeling regulations and guidelines on coexistence and traceability. Research projects such as Co-Extra, SIGMEA and Transcontainer are aimed at investigating improved methods for ensuring coexistence and providing stakeholders the tools required for the implementation of coexistence and traceability.[citation needed]
Detection
Testing on GMOs in food and feed is routinely done using molecular techniques like DNA microarrays or qPCR. These tests can be based on screening genetic elements (like p35S, tNos, pat, or bar) or event-specific markers for the official GMOs (like Mon810, Bt11, or GT73). The array-based method combines multiplex PCR and array technology to screen samples for different potential GMOs , combining different approaches (screening elements, plant-specific markers, and event-specific markers).
The qPCR is used to detect specific GMO events by usage of specific primers for screening elements or event-specific markers. Controls are necessary to avoid false positive or false negative results. For example, a test for CaMV is used to
Green Tea may help keep lung cancer at bay, new study suggests!
A recent medical study undertaken in Taiwan has found out that drinking a cup of green tea each day dramatically cuts the risk of developing lung cancer. This finding further bolsters the health credentials of this popular beverage, which is said to be effective in fighting a host of ailments ranging from heart disease to immune deficiency, to diabetes, liver disease, and yes, cancer.
A team headed by Dr. I-Hsin Lin, of Chung Shan Medical University in Taiwan studied the lifestyle habits of 170 people with lung cancer and 340 healthy patients. The participants were asked questions such as how much they smoked, how much green tea they drank, how much fruits and vegetables they eat, how they cook their food, and whether they have a family history of lung cancer.
Furthermore, the participants underwent genotyping on insulin-like growth factors: IGF1, IGF2, and IGFBP3, all of which have been thought to be related to risk for cancer.
The results of the medical study showed that both smokers and non-smokers who did not take green tea were 5 times more likely to develop lung cancer than those who drank at least one cup of green tea per day. Smokers who did not drink green tea at all were more than 12 times more likely to develop lung cancer than those who took at least one cup of the beverage per day.
In addition, it also showed that the protection from green tea appeared to be highest for those who carry certain genes. Smoking and non-smoking green tea drinkers carrying the non-susceptible IGF1 (CA)19/(CA)19 and (CA)19/X genotypes were found to be 66% less likely to develop lung cancer compared with those who also drank green tea but were carrying the IGF1 X/X genotype.
The team thus concludes that the antioxidants and polyphenol content in green tea and specific human genetic variations were together responsible for the probabilities of lung cancer risk in individuals.
The cancer-fighting properties of green tea have long been attributed to its rich content of polyphenols, notably a catechin called epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), which functions as a potent antioxidant. The EGCC catechin has been credited with its ability to restrict and prevent the growth of cancer cells.
Still, the Taiwanese team stressed the fact that lung cancer cannot be staved off solely by drinking large amounts of green tea. They reiterated that the best way to prevent lung cancer is still a conscious effort to eat healthy and to stay away from smoking.
Gaining Weight and Genetics – How Knowing Your Genetics Can Help You with Weight Management
Human obesity is a very common disease influenced by the interaction of multiple factors such as environment, genetics and dietary factors. Every obese person aims to reduce weight by using various approaches such as managing dietary habits, physical exercises and diet pills. However, knowledge about the link between genetics and obesity eases the process of weight management. Here is a discussion on various genes that play role in causing obesity.
Genetic approach for understanding obesity
Genetic information coded by DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) determines the physiological functions within living organisms. A small piece of DNA coding for a particular protein is termed as gene. A change of single nucleotide within the gene sequence increases the susceptibility or resistance to a particular disease. However, obesity is not caused by variations in one single gene but rather by a polygenic effect due to interaction of multiple genes. Altered genes responsible for increasing the susceptibility to disease (obesity in this case) are termed as susceptibility genes. These genes work in association with environmental factors such as diet, smoking and physical activity. Children of obese parents with susceptibility genes are at very high risk of developing obesity. This is due to inheritance of susceptibility genes by children from the parents.
Susceptibility genes responsible for obesity
Obesity is either directly or indirectly linked to about 425 genes. These genes exert effects on energy metabolism control, the extent of food intake, metabolic and signalling pathways and synthesis of fats. These effects in turn regulate the extent of fat deposition and hence, body weight.
Genes regulating the energy metabolism: ADRβ2, ADRβ3, PPARs, FABP etc.
Genes regulating the extent of food intake: NPY, CCK, POMC, MCH, etc.
Genes regulating the metabolic and signalling pathways: PPAR, FABP, PKA, c/EBP, etc.
Of all the above genes, variations in the genes encoding for β-adrenergic receptors and LEPR are mainly responsible for obesity.
How to use genetic information for weight management
Efficient weight management is possible by knowing the genetic composition of the DNA. For example, some of the common means for losing weight are consuming low carbohydrate diet, low fat diet and increased physical activity. You might be confused which one to choose.
Just undergo a Genetic Testing. If the results indicate modification of genes regulating the synthesis of beta-adrenergic receptors, then you must make efforts to burn more energy. Wondering why? Here is a simple explanation.
Beta adrenergic receptors are present on cell membranes of many cells. Upon binding of appropriate substrate, they mobilize the stored energy. This energy expenditure is achieved in the form of fat degradation and heat generation in brown adipose tissues. Hence, any modification of the genes coding for these receptors hinders the process of energy mobilization. This increases the risk of weight gain. Thus, individuals with defective ADRβ2, ADRβ3 genes should follow a routine physical activity to avoid weight gain.